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In the exploration of masculinity, sexuality, and health, social construction is an important theoretical foundation. The proponents of social construction theory mairttain that aspects of our social reality are constructed through human interkction and communication in specific contexts.’ From a commu nication perspective, advocates for a theory of social construction recognize the role of lCmguage as discourse in the formation of societies and their corresponding systems of power.> Communication and its components - language, symbols, and significant social performances and actions the norms, regularities, and expectations that move a society from discursive to practical consciousness, allowing that society to go on.3 In so doing, communication - as the social construction of reality - also produces exceptions, peculiarities; and pariahs.

To understand masculinity, sexuality, and health as socially constructed is to recognize the power of a society’s values in the formulation of discursive regimes and I the resulting fictions of normalcy. Because the biomedical model has defined :the unresponsive penis as a problem to be solved, the development of Viagra not only defines the solution to a condition, but discursively defines nordlal as well. Goffman’s list implicitly names all other “incomplete” men. Ana even while we pay attention to this list of credentials attributed to our “unblushing” male, we see him surrounded with other bits of information that will, eventually, question his claims to masculinity.

In the last twenty years, an explosion of websites and articles- l in both the popular and academic press have addressed the issue of masculinity, This emergence can be seen as (1) a legitimate response to the critique of women’s roles in feminist theory and criticism; (2) a part of the postmodern project of deconstructing societal hegemonies; and (3) a better account I of both the privileges and oppressions of masculine roles and performances. Robert Connell’s Masculinities (1995) extends the framework he suggests earlier in Gender and Power (1987) and that is echoed by Harry Brod in The Making of Masculinities (1987) that there are masculinities.

In The Male Experience (1983), James Doyle identifies therries similar to those developed earlier by Robert Brannon (1976) and implied ih Goffman’s list of complete men above. Brannon’s four “types” are the “BigIWheel,” the “Sturdy Oak,” “Give ‘em Hell,” and “No Sissy Stuff.” Doyle’ asserts that there are five things expected, required, of American men, four of which match Brannon’s labels precisely. They are “Be successful,” “be independent,” “Be aggressive,” and “Don’t be feminine.” The fifth is “Be sexual.” A successful man (the Big Wheel) in the United States today is largely defined by his ability to make money. The masculine ideal as successful provider is evident in this requirement. Success is not defined by being liked, but by being envied.” Independence (the Sturdy Oak) is demonstrated by selfreliance. The appearance of being able to take care of oneself in all circumstances and the tendency to avoid requests for assistance are commonly assumed masculine traits (e.g., don’t ask for directions!). Self-reliance is also exhibited through confidence and autonomy. Aggression (Givei’em Hell) is operationalized not only as a willingness to stand and fight or never give up, but also as a willingness to engage in risk-taking behaviors. Frequently, risktaking behavior is sex-specific as evidenced in the expression I “That takes balls!” Don’t be feminine (No Sissy Stuff) refers indirectly to psychodynamic theories of family relations.f A boy learns how to be a man not ;through the observance of his father (who is absent), but by not doing what his mother does. Furthermore, in the quest to achieve a version of masculin1ity, anything considered feminine becomes devalued. Later these stereotypes of “not woman” emerge in a variety of contexts. To show sensitivity or vulnerability is to open o*selfup to ridicule. Not showing or displaying “feminine” emotions is one way to perform masculinity.
To these Doyle adds his fifth requirement: “Be sexual.” To be masculine, a man must !establish an ability to consistently demonstrate sexual prowess through multiple female partners. Leonore Tiefer concurs, “Sexual virilitythe ability td fulfill the conjugal duty, the ability to procreate, sexual power, potency is everywhere a requirement of the male role, and thus ‘impotence’ is everywhere a matter of concern.”? But “Be sexual” really means “Be heterosexual,” with even Tiefer’sdefinition revealing exclusionary language codes such at “conjugal” and “procreate.”